Latin America Affected by Illegal Drugs

Latin America is the region worse affected by illegal drugs. Countries such as Mexico and Uruguay act as producers and suppliers of a number of illicit drugs to the international illegal drug market. The aggressive war on drugs waged by the Latin American states has failed to yield significant results and the drug problem continues to plague the region.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Latin America Affected by Illegal Drugs specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This has led to radical actions being proposed by Latin American leaders. Uruguay’s president Josà © Mujica has proposed for a government regulated and controlled marijuana market while Mexican President Felipe Calderon has called for a new way to reduce trafficking considering the fact that developed countries have been unable to reduce their consumption of illegal drugs. President Calderon argued that criminal networks had massive resources due to the lack of international action by the drug consuming countries to tackle the issue (UN General Debate, 2012). Both leaders contend that legalization of drugs might be the solution to the drug problems that has plagued Latin America for decades. The argument made by the Latin American leaders fails to consider the adverse effects of drugs on the user. Drug use results in physical and mental effects and increases instances of violence. The UAE is strongly against illegal drugs and harsh penalties are imposed on individuals possessing or trafficking these drugs. This stringent approach is based on the understanding that drugs threaten social stability by promoting violence and making people economically inactive. The UAE perspective would therefore be against the proposed legalization of drugs since such measures would result in more harm than good. This argument is supported by Yacoubian (2007) who reveals that heavy marijuana use impairs a person’s ability to form memories and it might result in acute psychosis. Making the drug legal as the Uruguayan president proposes would result in more people suffering from the adverse mental and physical effects associated with drug use. Another argument made is that legalizing drugs such as Marijuana would have the positive effect of reducing trafficking. The Uruguayan president argues that legalization would give government greater control on the product, which would make it safer for the user while at the same time making the role of traffickers’ obsolete (Cave, 2012).Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More While this might be the case, marijuana is mostly a get way drug and most users move on to harder drugs such as heroin and cocaine. Making the drug legal would therefore lead to a significant increase in the number of people who are addicted to hard drugs. The UAE perspective would be against such a move since increased drug use is an undesirable outcome for the nation. The international community must take decisive action to tackle the issue of illegal drugs. However, this action should not be legalizing the consumption of currently illegal drugs. If the leaders in Latin America are earnest about their efforts to reduce drug trafficking, they should concentrate on eradicating corruption among local authority officials and improve the economic standards of their citizens. These are the two factors that have guaranteed the survival of drug cartels and traffickers and dealing with them will significant reduce the drug problem in the region. In the mean time, the leaders should adopt the UAE approach that views drugs as an ill to be eradicated at all costs for the good for the society. References Cave, D. (2012). South America Sees Drug Path to Legalization. The New York Times. Web. UN General Debate (2012). Address by His Excellency Felipe Calderà ³n Hinojosa, President of the United Mexican States at the General debate of the 67th Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations. Web. Yacoubian, G. (2007). Assessing the Relationship between Marijuana Availability and Marijuana Use: A Legal and Sociological Comparison between the United States and the Netherlands. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 51 (4), 17-34. This essay on Latin America Affected by Illegal Drugs was written and submitted by user Saanvi I. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Hoi Polloi

Hoi Polloi Hoi Polloi Hoi Polloi By Maeve Maddox A reader has asked me to write about the word hoi polloi: I get so tired of intelligent people using this to mean the exact opposite. Hoi polloi is an English word that derives from a Greek phrase meaning â€Å"the many† or â€Å"the majority [of citizens].† Its English meaning is â€Å"the masses† or â€Å"the general public.† It’s often used in the pejorative sense of â€Å"the vulgar, unthinking masses.† The error the reader has in mind is the spreading tendency of many speakers (including intelligent ones) to use hoi polloi as if it means, â€Å"the social elite† or â€Å"influential rich people.† For example, So it’s official: Hollywood’s hoi polloi (e.g. Miramax movie mogul Harvey Weinstein) are coming out against firearms ownership and swearing off movies that rely heavily on gunplay. As Harvey Weinstein has a net worth of $200 million, the writer apparently believes that hoi polloi means â€Å"influential rich people.† In ancient Greek, hoi polloi meant â€Å"the many.† Its complementary term was hoi oligoi, â€Å"the few.† The term reflected a fact of social and political division. From the Greek word oligoi, we get the English word oligarchy, â€Å"government by a small group of people.† Classical scholar John Dryden introduced the expression into English in 1668. For him, the hoi polloi were people who lacked literary discernment. The expression quickly became a useful way for speakers to distinguish â€Å"Us† from â€Å"Them.† Because â€Å"Us† is always more educated and informed than â€Å"Them,† hoi polloi came to mean â€Å"the uneducated majority† or â€Å"the great unwashed, vulgar, unthinking public.† Nowadays, although political power still belongs to the hoi oligoi, the hoi polloi are better educated than they were in Dryden’s time, and they don’t like being called hoi polloi. They also possess a power that earlier generations lacked: the power to redefine words. One factor contributing to the association of hoi polloi with â€Å"snooty rich people† could be the similarity with â€Å"hoity toity,† an expression that conveys contempt for someone seen as â€Å"putting on airs.† The two expressions are often juxtaposed for humorous effect, as in the title of the Roseanne episode called â€Å"Hoi Polloi Meets Hoiti Toiti† (Roseanne, Season 9, Episode 8). In this episode, Roseanne and her family visit â€Å"uppity-high-society people† on Martha’s Vineyard. Although wealthier and more refined in manners and speech than the Conners, the wealthy Wentworths are clearly their moral inferiors. Note: Roseanne is a television comedy series featuring a working class family, the Conners, who are portrayed as being vulgar in speech and manners, but morally superior to better-educated, more affluent characters they encounter. Another factor contributing to the shift in meaning of hoi polloi may be that the referent is not always clear from context. For example, in a Three Stooges episode called â€Å"Hoi Polloi,† a well-dressed man bets a colleague that he can take a man from â€Å"the lowest strata of society† and turn him into a gentleman. He experiments with the Stooges. He fails to civilize them, but the fancy people descend to the Stooges’ brutish behavior. At episode end, Moe looks disdainfully at the crowd of elegantly dressed men and women who are slapping, punching, and gouging one another and says, â€Å"This is our punishment for associating with the hoi polloi.† New meanings of hoi polloi include, â€Å"people who are not like us,† â€Å"people we don’t like,† and simply, â€Å"people who don’t know what we know.† For example, in a forum for equestrians, a member referred to people who are ignorant of the rules of dressage as â€Å"the hoi polloi.† The definition of hoi polloi in The Urban Dictionary indicates the aversion in which this word is held: hoi polloi: A stupid term used by pseudo intellectuals with unjustified superiority complexes. Many bloggers ridicule speakers who precede hoi polloi with the definite article: Clearly Lois is using words though ignorant of their meaning. â€Å"Hoi† is the definite article, meaning â€Å"the†. When the uneducated Lois says â€Å"the hoi polloi† she is saying â€Å"the the many†. She makes a fool of herself on many levels. Dryden knew that â€Å"hoi† means â€Å"the† in Greek. He even wrote the expression in Greek letters, confident that his target audience could read it. However, because he was using the word in an English sentence, he introduced it with the English definite article: â€Å"If by the people you understand the multitude, the ÃŽ ¿Ã¡ ¼ ± πΠ¿ÃŽ »ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¿Ã¡ ½ ¶.† Suggesting that English speakers who say â€Å"the hoi polloi† are â€Å"ignorant† may bathe critics in feelings of superiority, but the criticism is itself a sign of absurd pedantry and, dare I say, ignorance of how language works. Many English words incorporate a foreign element that means the without raising questions of tautology. For example, the al in algebra, alchemist, and Alcatraz â€Å"mean† the in Arabic. No one suggests that writing â€Å"the alchemist† is the same thing as writing â€Å"the the chemist.† As far as I know, no one ridicules people who refer to the La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles for â€Å"really† saying â€Å"the the tar tar pits.† (La and Brea are Spanish for the and tar.) Hoi polloi is an English word in transition. English speakers will determine whether the word retains the meaning of â€Å"the masses,† morphs into a term for â€Å"snooty rich people,† or falls to the wayside along with other words that usage has voted out as being culturally offensive. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:The Meaning of "To a T"Confusing "Passed" with "Past"How to Style Legislative Terms

Constructivism and Teaching English Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Constructivism and Teaching English - Assignment Example Although constructivism might provide a model of knowing and learning that has important implications for classroom practices, it does not translate neatly into a set of pedagogical practices. The implementation of the constructivist approach is still worth discussion and clarification. This paper will highlight challenges associated with implementing constructivism in teaching English to speakers of other languages. Much writing has been done about theories of constructivism and the connection to superior learning results; however, there is no "consolidated" discussion of the foundations, results, and practical issues of constructivism. According to Marlowe and Page (1998), even when teachers recognise the value of and want to use constructivist approaches in their classrooms, their efforts often produce less than what they expected. There have been attempts to make constructivism operational so that classroom teachers can more rapidly apply constructivist theory to practice. The pr oblem is that the application of constructivism in classrooms is "neither widespread nor systematic". Constructivist propositions can seem fairly simple but hundreds of observations of and questions from pre-service and in ¬ service teachers over the past 10 years show that they are not. Teachers and administrators who already work with constructivist reform initiatives need guidelines to help with the implementation. Moreover, development of a constructivist view of learning as a basis for instruction implies fundamental changes.

Developmental Timeline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Developmental Timeline - Essay Example The final stage is the formal operational stage and this stage goes from the age of 12 and ends at death. In this stage, children can think articulately about concrete objects and they have a strong sense of reasoning. There are also substages to these stages. The first substage to the sensorimotor stage is from the ages of birth to one month and it occurs through reflexes like grasping and sucking. In this stage knowledge is acquired through these reflexes. Substage 2 happens from the ages of 1 to 4 months. Reflexes are organized into larger more complex behaviours where behaviours like grabbing a rattle to suck occurs. Substage 3 occurs from the ages of 4 to 8 months where repetition of actions causes pleasing or interesting things to happen as in the case of banging a rattle. Substage 4 occurs from the ages of 8 to 12 months. This occurs when objects can be imagined with the mind even when they are out of sight. Substage 5 occurs from the ages of 12 to 18 months where an object is used in a variety of ways. For example, banging a spoon against a high chair.

Nursing degree (care study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Nursing degree (care study) - Essay Example " i am almost finished with the research. Today when i opened the message column, the customer's message explaining the misunderstanding between the customer, ADMIN and this writer as follows and i quote " 61 From: Customer to Writer Date: 2006-08-08 01:47 Subject: Re: i saw the error made by the previous writer causing you to fail. Status: New There has been a clear misunderstanding with reagrds to this assignment the problem is 1) I was assigned a wriiter many months ago and this failed. I had to pay 140 for this!!! 2) I contacted admin but was told that because I had a complaint and it was over 2 weeks old I could not get another writter for free therefore I trusted the service and asked for a writter to complete. 3) The wriiter assigned was terrible and just plagarised lots of work and didn't stick to what I requested. 4) I was assigned a new writter, however I stressed to both the writter and admin that this work had to be completed by 2nd August as the work had to be submitted by 3rd August. 5) The new writter contacted me on the 2nd August after having the work for 5 days and stated that they have not done anything to the work as they could not find the relevant information. 6) I contacted admin to complain and they said I could have a new writter, howver I turned down a new writter as they would of only had about 10 hours to work on this assignemnt until the deadline of 3rd August 9am. So sorry admin had misinformed you, but I had to complete the work myself I stayed up all night. " therefore, please remove this from my current folder because it is unfair to fine me fothe LAZINESS of the RAMESH and the second writer. to be frank i could finish this on time if the customer had me as...i am working on it now. will you rather give your research on the history of the patient you did or do i have get a patient for myself please respond so i can finish this on time. i am almost finished with the research. Today when i opened the message column, the customer's message explaining the misunderstanding between the customer, ADMIN and this writer as follows and i quote " 61 From: Customer to Writer Date: 2006-08-08 01:47 2) I contacted admin but was told that because I had a complaint and it was over 2 weeks old I could not get another writter for free therefore I trusted the service and asked for a writter to complete. 6) I contacted admin to complain and they said I could have a new writter, howver I turned down a new writter as they would of only had about 10 hours to work on this assignemnt until the deadline of 3rd August 9am. therefore, please remove this from my current folder because it is unfair to fine me fothe LAZINESS of the RAMESH and the second writer. to be frank i could finish this on time if the customer had me as the writer in the first place instead of the other 2 writers. by the way, are they premium writers

Stages of Child Language Acquisition

Stages of Child Language Acquisition A child starts to communicate with those around him/her since birth, although in the first few months this communication occurs on a non-verbal level. However, as a child develops physically, he/she gradually acquires language skills. Overall, child language acquisition begins from phonological development and proceeds to syntactic and semantic development. The aim of the present essay is to analyse three major stages of the first language acquisition (phonological, syntactic and semantic). Although linguists and other scholars have agreed in opinion that language is a process of acquisition (rather than the process of learning), they provide contradictory theories of child language acquisition (Cole Cole, 1996). Among the most famous theories are a reinforcement theory, an imitation theory, a critical-age theory and an analogy theory. Despite the fact that all these theories present a valid explanation of language acquisition, certain problems occur when they are applied to practic e. The most likely interpretation of phonological, syntactic and semantic development of a child is provided by imitation and analogy theories; hence, these theoretical concepts are employed for the analysis. According to these theories, the process of child language acquisition is aimed at adjusting to adults’ speech that has its rules and structures. As acquisition of language is a rather intricate process, a child only listens to adults’ speech in the first few months. Actually, in this period a child is involved in the process of language perception rather than the process of language production (See Table 1). However, as a child reaches the age of 6 months, he/she starts to pronounce various sounds (Fee, 1995). At first a child pronounces vowel sounds and further he/she manages to unite vowels and consonants (e.g. sa, da, ma, ba, di, ti, gu, etc.). At approximately 8 months a child constantly repeats syllables (e.g. ba-ba-ba or di-di-di) and by 12 months he/she successfully combines these syllables into a simple word (e.g. â€Å"mama†, â€Å"papa† or â€Å"baba†). It is significant that child’s pronunciation of sounds also reflects intonation and stress; according to Echols and Newport (1992), through these patterns a child makes an attempt to impart certain meaning or reveal his/her emotions . This babbling is the initial step in child’s phonological development (Macken, 1995); the true phonological skills are exposed by a child at approximately 1.4 years (though even at the age of 0.4 – 0.9 months a child already has some phonological abilities, as he manages to recognise native and non-native speech). At this time a child demonstrates comprehension of the relation between sounds and meanings; moreover, he/she starts to identify phonemic differences in adult speech. In the process of sound production a child certainly makes pronunciation mistakes that linguists regard as phonological deviations. Generally, phonological deviations are divided into two basic categories: substitution errors and syllable errors (Bankson Bernthal, 1998). Further, these categories are divided into several sub-categories, including weak syllable deletion, final consonant deletion, consonant cluster reduction, velar fronting, palatal fronting, stopping, gliding of liquids, word final devoicing, etc. Due to an immature speech apparatus, some sounds are more complex for child’s pronunciation than others; for instance, such consonant sounds as â€Å"l† and â€Å"r† are learned by a child later than sounds â€Å"p† and â€Å"m†, because the former sounds are phonetically similar, while the latter sounds are different. As a result, a child substitutes voiceless sounds with voiced sounds (e.g. â€Å"gap’ instead of â€Å"cap† or â€Å"tad† instead of â€Å"dad†); it is context sensitive voicing. The second deviation is word final devoicing; it is a process when final voiced consonants are substituted with voiceless consonants (â€Å"dad’ is pronounced as â€Å"dat†). A child may also employ final consonant deletion, pronouncing â€Å"co† instead of â€Å"cow† or â€Å"pin† instead of â€Å"pink†. Velar fronting (e.g. â€Å"tiss† instead of â€Å"kiss†) and palatal f ronting (e.g. â€Å"sake† instead of â€Å"shake†) are used by a child, because it is easier for him/her to pronounce consonants that are at the front of the mouth and teeth. Other phonological deviations include weak syllable deletion (â€Å"pape† instead of â€Å"paper†), consonant harmony (â€Å"goggy† instead of â€Å"doggy), cluster reduction (â€Å"tool† instead of â€Å"stool†), stopping (â€Å"pan† instead of â€Å"fan†) and gliding of liquids (â€Å"wat† instead of â€Å"rat). In reality, as Maye, Werker Gerken (2002) demonstrate in their research, a child perceives accurate phonemic contrasts, but he/she is unable to produce correct sounds until a proper age. Moreover, unlike adults, an infant may even distinguish foreign phonemic contrasts from native contrasts; due to this ability a child who is adopted in a foreign country may easily acquire language of his/her parents. At the age of 3-4 years most children learn to rightfully pronounce all sounds, eliminating the majority of phonological deviations. However, some children may continue to employ these deviations in their speech; specialists regard these children as individuals with certain phonological disorders that may have a detrimental effect on their reading skills (Ingram, 1989). When a child learns how to pronounce simple words, he/she proceeds to combine known words into small utterances. In this respect, a child acquires syntactic skills that are usually developed in two stages: the holophrastic stage and the two-word stage. During the holophrastic stage (between 0.9 and 1.0 years) a child forms one-word utterances with a certain intonation. In general, these utterances are composed of either verbs or nouns, while adjectives and other parts of speech are acquired by a child afterwards. In fact, it is rather difficult for adults to interpret child’s one-word sentences, as, for instance, â€Å"book† may mean that he/she wants his/her parents to read a book or that he/she sees a book or that he/she does not like this book. The situation is even more complicated when a child pronounces a phrase without intervals. According to O’Grady (1997), â€Å"many children initially treat what’s that? look at that, come here, and similar expre ssions as single units that are linked holistically to a particular situational context† (p.13). In other words, if a child hears phrases that are somehow stressed, he/she may extract them from the rest of speech and use them as a single entity, making no pauses among words. In the two-word stage (1.5-2.0 years) a child creates two-word sentences that are pronounced with single intonation and start to reflect the first semantic relations, for instance, â€Å"baby read† or â€Å"sit table† (Pinker, 1994). In general, these utterances are categorised as follows: 1) Noun Utterances: My apple, His Daddy. 2) Verb Utterances: Me play, Girl sing. 3) Questions: Mom read? Baba go? 4) Negatives: Not eat, No shirt. As the examples show, though these sentences are not grammatically right yet, they are constructed in a right order (Ingram, 1989). By the age of 2-3 years a child easily produces several thousand syntactic utterances, and the major stress in these utterances is placed on the word that provides more information (e.g. â€Å"Mummy COME† or â€Å"MUMMY come†). Initially, these sentences lack such function units as â€Å"on†, â€Å"the† or â€Å"of† and such inflections as â€Å"-s†, â€Å"-ing† or â€Å"-ed† (hence, child’s speech at this stage is usually regarded as â€Å"telegraphic speech†), but gradually a child includes negations, passives, comparatives, relative clauses and conjunctions in his/her sentences. In some cases a child may use right patterns and wrong patterns in one sentence, for instance, I reading and Mama is cooking. Such a combination reveals that a child knows certain grammar patterns, but he/sh e has not mastered them yet. However, if an adult uses these patterns incorrectly, he/she will obviously point at the mistake. As a child acquires knowledge of such a pattern as â€Å"-ed†, he/she usually turns to overregularisation, that is, a process when all verbs become regular in child’s speech (e.g. â€Å"goed† or â€Å"spended†). This overregularisation can be explained by the fact that a child acquires a language in certain patterns and, as he/she learns the pattern (e.g. â€Å"mama helped† or â€Å"baba claimed†), he/she applies this pattern to other verbs, including irregular verbs. It is certainly easier for a child to apply â€Å"-ed† to all verbs than to memorise all irregular verbs and differentiate regular verbs from irregular verbs. As the time passes, a child learns to change the wrong verb form for a right form. In addition, he/she gradually acquires knowledge of definite and indefinite articles, plural nouns, linkin g verbs and possessive cases. However, even when a child acquires knowledge of all these rules and patterns, he/she may still be unable to form complex utterances; consequently, a child may turn to the repetition of certain phrases to fill gaps in his/her speech. Finally, as a child manages to create simple sentences, he/she acquires semantic skills (approximately 3.0 years). As word acquisition intensifies, a child collides with a necessity to form semantic patterns; above all, a child uses those content categories that refer to objects, events and humans, although usage of these categories greatly depends on social, cultural and linguistic aspects. However, in all cultures a meaning that a child puts into a certain object or an utterance differs from a usual adult speech. As Harris (1990) states, young children â€Å"are able to express complex meanings, although these meanings are concerned with the current interests and needs, rather than abstract concepts or events that are distant in terms of time or space† (p.4). If a child mainly interacts with his/her peers, then he/she adjusts language to this childish realm. As a rule, a child employs either overgeneralisation or underextension when he/she creates semantic patterns. As for the first process, a child provides a word with more meanings than the word has; for example, he/she may apply the word â€Å"fox† to different animals. In the case of underextension, a child uses fewer meanings than a word has in a usual vocabulary; for example, he/she may associate a word â€Å"arm† only with a mother who touches him/her. In other instances a child fails to recognise a word. Besides, if a child can not find an appropriate word during speech, he/she may devise completely new words with new meanings. However, as a child grows and interacts with people in different situations, he/she learns more meanings of words and utterances (Beals Tabors, 1995). This especially regards interactions with adults; as adult speech is more sophisticated, a child memorises unknown patterns and then employs them in his/her speech. Hence, as a child acquires words and phrases with a profound semantic content, he/she gradually eliminates less semantically valid patterns. According to Frawley (1992), a child’s early semantic patterns reflect the following semantic categories: Agent and Action Cat run Agent and Object Girl doll Entity and Locative Baba far Attribute and Entity Wet hair Agent and Location Mother bath Action and Recipient Give birdie Possessor and Possession Papa pen But as a child shapes linguistic skills (3.5–4.0 years), he/she starts to employ more semantic categories, such as number, time, colour, substance, shape, position, etc., for instance, â€Å"Mummy and I went to a playground†, â€Å"My doll cries and I calm her† or â€Å"I give it to you†. Mastering the major concepts of grammar/meaning relations, a child manages to gradually employ complex grammar patterns: negatives: shouldn’t, needn’t, couldn’t; when-questions (as well as what and why): When do you go? tag-questions: You will go with me, will you? be + verb + -ing: Is Mummy Cooking? compound utterances: Papa is working and I am playing. if sentences: I will do if I wish. Thus, analysing child language acquisition, the essay suggests that from 6 months to 4-5 years a child gradually acquires phonological, syntactic and semantic skills. Although every child develops individually, language acquisition reflects common stages of speech perception and production. Some researchers (e.g. Pinker, 1994; O’Grady, 1997) claim that syntactic and semantic development of a child occurs simultaneously. The fact is that meanings of some verbs can not be understood by a child merely from a context; it is the knowledge of syntactic patterns that provides a child with an opportunity to rightfully uncover the meaning of these verbs. Whether this viewpoint is valid or not, it is absolutely clear that while a child has inborn abilities for language, he/she needs specific social environment to acquire it. This became especially obvious with a discovery of Amala and Kamala, the feral children who were brought up with wolves and could not speak at all. Such findings ce rtainly refute an innate hypothesis and reveal that linguistic skills of a child are formed by and within society. Table 1. Stages of Child Language Acquisition* Phonology From birth to 0.5 years – perception of adult speech; 0.6 years – pronunciation of the first sounds (vowels → consonants → vowels + consonants); 0.8 years – repetition of syllables and recognition of phonemic differences; 1.0 year – understanding of the relation between sounds and meaning; Use of phonological deviations: 1.4 years cluster reduction 2 years – weak syllable deletion initial consonant deletion final consonant deletion 2.0-3.0 years – palatal fronting velar fronting stopping gliding of liquids Syntax 0.9–1.0 years – â€Å"the holophrastic stage† – formation of one-word utterances; 1.5-2.0 years – â€Å"telegraphic speech†, formation of two-word utterances; 2.0–3.0 years – overregularisation of grammar Semantics 3.0 years – application of meaning to language patterns and grammar structures; Use of either overgeneralisation or Underextension Use of the following semantic categories: 1) Agent and Action 2) Agent and Object 3) Entity and Locative 4) Attribute and Entity 5) Agent and Location 6) Action and Recipient 7) Possessor and Possession 3.5-4.0 years – knowledge of complex grammar patterns: negatives; when-questions; tag-questions; be + verb + -ing; compound utterances; if sentences * The ages of child’s language development are approximate; the data in this table are generalised, while every child acquires phonological, syntactic and semantic skills on an individual basis. However, such a generalisation is important, as it allows specialists to reveal any deviations from the normal development of children. Bibliography Bankson, N. Bernthal, J. (1998) Analysis of assessment data. In: J. Bernthal and N. Bankson (eds.) Articulation and Phonological Disorders. Boston, Butterworth-Heinemann. pp.270-298. Beals, D. E. Tabors, P. O. (1995) Arboretum, bureaucratic and carbohydrate: Preschoolers’ exposure to rare vocabulary at home. First Language, 15, 57-76. Cole, M. Cole, S. (1996) The Development of Children. New York, W. H. Freeman Company. Echols, C. Newport, E. (1992) The role of stress and position in determining first words. Language Acquisition, 2, 189-220. Fee, J. (1995) Segments and syllables in early language acquisition. In: J. Archibald (ed.) Phonological Acquisition and Phonological Theory. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum. pp.43-61. Frawley, W. (1992) Linguistic Semantics. Hillsdale, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Harris, J. (1990) Early Language Development: Implications for Clinical and Educational Practice. London, Routledge. Ingram, D. (1989) First Language Acquisition: Method, Description, and Explanation. New York, Cambridge University Press. Macken, M. (1995) Phonological acquisition. In: J. A. Goldsmith (ed.) The Handbook of Phonological Theory. Cambridge, Blackwell. pp.671-696. Maye, J., Werker, J. F. Gerken, L. (2002) Infant sensitivity to distributional information can affect phonetic discrimination. Cognition, 82 (3), 101-111. O’Grady, W. (1997) Syntactic Development. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Pinker, S. (1994) How could a child use verb syntax to learn verb semantics? Lingua, 92, 377-410. AN ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC ROLES 2007 Until the 70s years of the 20th century semantics was completely excluded from any studies of grammar (Lyons, 1995; Bach, 2002). But recently, linguists and researchers have recognised a great variety of semantic roles (or theta roles) that provide valid information as to grammar/meaning relations (Cutrer, 1993). According to Payne (1997), a semantic role is a specific role that is classified in accordance with its meaning and is performed by a participant with regard to the principal verb of an utterance. In other words, semantic roles provide an opportunity to identify either similarities or dissimilarities of verb’s meanings in sentences. Actually, some semantic roles are regarded as principal, while others are thought to be less crucial for a linguistic analysis. But, as Langacker (1991) points out, â€Å"there is no unique or exclusive set of role conceptions. Those cited as archetypal are analogous to the highest peak in a mountain range: they coexist with others that m ay be significant despite their lesser salience† (p.237). The major semantic roles include Agent, Patient, Instrument, Theme, Cause, Experience, Goal, Benefective (or Beneficiary), Source, Location, Temporal and Path (Jackendoff, 1990; Dowty, 1991). According to Van Valin (1999), semantic relations may be also divided into two groups: the first group includes the usual semantic roles, such as Agent, Patient, Theme, etc., while the second group includes merely two semantic roles – Actor and Undergoer. The roles of the second group are usually referred to as semantic macroroles. Although this categorisation is not universally accepted, nevertheless, it is employed by researchers for a profound investigation of grammar/meaning relations. In the present analysis the classification of Jackendoff (1990) and Dowty (1991) is used. Let’s start from the following examples: Teddy killed the deer with a hunting rifle. A hunting riffle killed a deer. A deer was killed. In the first sentence Teddy performs a semantic role of an Agent, while in grammatical relations Teddy is a Subject. For all that, Teddy is associated with a hunting rifle by means of a grammar/meaning relation of a â€Å"kill† event. In the second sentence a semantic role of a Hunting Riffle is an Instrument, but in grammatical relations it is a Subject. Finally, in the third sentence a Deer appears in a semantic role of a Patient, while in grammatical relations it is again a Subject. Actually, if two participants are involved in an action of a sentence, a grammar/meaning relation is considered to be asymmetric. For instance, in the sentence Jimmy touched Marry two participants are involved in the action, but they perform various roles. Jimmy is a person who starts the action, thus, he is an Agent, while Marry is a person who is influenced by Jimmy’s action and she is a Patient. In this context, an Agent performs a conscious segment of a particular action and a Patient unconsciously responds to this action. As the above example demonstrates, an Agent should necessarily be alive, as it starts an action; however, this attribute is not ascribed to a Patient that is influenced by an action either in a direct or indirect way. There are some English sentences, where only an Agent is presented, such as Steven took a two-week holiday. Although this sentence differs from the previous utterance, both examples belong to a â€Å"do† category. But there are other categories of events, and sometimes it is really difficult to identify the right category (Frawley, 1992). The fact is that English sentences may reflect many similar features, but, despite these similarities, they may reveal various events and different semantic roles. For instance, in the sentence Peter heard a noise, Peter is a participant, but unlike prior examples, Peter does not appear as an Agent, because he is not an initiator of the action, he is an Experiencer. Therefore, such sentences may be attributed to an â€Å"experi ence† category. However, sentences that belong to this category may pose certain problems, as they may demonstrate different peculiarities of events, changing semantic roles in utterances. For example, in the sentence Ann looked at Ted, Ann is an Agent of the action, though she is also an Experiencer (similar to Peter from the previous example). Ann consciously pays heed to something, while Peter is unconscious of his action. Both sentences look similar, but peculiarities of events and semantic roles are different in these utterances. The second complexity that may occur in the process of analysis refers to the second participant of the discussed sentence. While in sentences with a â€Å"do† category the second participant is a Patient, because it is influenced by the Agent’s act, in sentences with an â€Å"experience† category the second participant (e.g. Ted) is not a Patient, as it is not influenced by the Agent’s act. As the above sentence shows , Ted is necessary for better understanding of the event; hence, he may be considered as a Theme of an action. But some utterances in this category have neither an Agent nor a Patient, though at the first sight it is easy to make a mistake. For example, in the sentence Danny loves Mag there are no agents or patients, as Danny does not perform any action and Mag is not explicitly or implicitly influenced by this action (probably she does not even know of Danny’s feelings). In this utterance Danny is an Experiencer, while Mag is a Theme. Unlike semantic roles, grammar roles can be identified more easily; in the discussed sentence Danny is a subject and Mag is an object. In fact, one grammar constituent may have a number of semantic roles; for example, a subject may involve an Experiencer, an Agent, a Patient, while an object may include a Theme, a Patient, an Instrument, etc. Thus, semantic roles provide more accurate and profound information as to the meaning of an utterance than grammar roles; however, both grammar roles and semantic roles are crucial for linguistics. In addition to the mentioned categories, there is also a â€Å"happen† category that is rather facile. For instance, the sentence My car is broken has one participant that is explicitly influenced by an action; that is why this participant (My car) is a Patient (there is no Agent in this utterance). Unlike a â€Å"happen† category, a so called â€Å"information transfer† category may pose certain difficulties for those who analyse semantic roles. In the sentence Jerome informed Timmy of a conference there are two participants – Jerome and Timmy. But while Jerome is an Agent of the occurred event, Timmy is not a Patient, as one may consider, taking into account the previous examples. In this utterance Timmy is a Recipient, and a Patient is absent in this sentence – neither Timmy nor information can be regarded as a Patient, because information is not directly or indirectly influenced by Timmy or by the transfer. In this regard, information in the discussed utterance is a Theme of the event. Overall, in all mentioned examples nouns and adjectives refer or point at a particular event; however, there are also sentences, where these parts of speech pay heed to a specific state instead of an event. Such utterances relate to a â€Å"be† category. For instance, in the sentence Viola is healthy again, Viola is a Participant that also appears as a Theme. In this utterance the state of Viola is determined by the adjective â€Å"healthy†, but not by a verb (as in the prior examples). Therefore, â€Å"healthy† fulfils a predicative role, unlike verbs in preceding sentences that fulfil an attributive role. Sentences in this category may also reflect temporal relations, like in the following utterance: Garry is in front of Nick. In this sentence there are two participants that certainly appear in temporal relations; undoubtedly, if the sentence is changed for Nick is behind Garry, the relations between Nick and Garry will not be altered. In this respect, both participants perform the role of a Theme in the sentence. In view of all observed examples, it is obvious that participants may fulfil either a central role or a marginal role in the action; that is, a division is made between the principal and secondary participants. For instance, in the sentence Nelly embraced Steve before the guests, Nelly is the principal participant, an Agent, while Steve is the secondary participant, an Instrument with the help of which Nelly fulfils the action. Even if an Agent is absent, as in the sentence A stone broke the fence, there is a supposed Agent and an Instrument. Moreover, if two participants are mentioned in a sentence, the secondary participant may perform a role of a Beneficiary, as in the following example: Mommy did homework for Sally. In this utterance Sally is a Beneficiary, as another person (his Mommy) does homework for him. Therefore, the analysed sentences demonstrate that each semantic role may reflect different properties, and identification of these properties may be rather problematic in t he process of analysis, resulting in frequent confusions. Table 2 below epitomises the observed semantic roles, their major functions and possible problems. Table 2. Major semantic roles Semantic role Function Possible confusions / problems Agent The principal participant (always animate) that starts an action An Experiencer may be wrongly regarded as an Agent But: An Agent consciously fulfils an action, while An Experiencer is not consciously involved in the action’s fulfilment Patient The principal participant (either inanimate or animate) that is influenced by an event In certain cases a Patient may perform a role of an Agent This occurs in instances that signify moves; that is, when a participant simultaneously performs an action and is influenced by it Instrument The secondary participant with the help of which an Agent fulfils an action If there are both an Agent and a Causer in a sentence, it may be difficult to rightfully identify instruments of an Agent and a Causer The instrument for a Causer is an Agent An Agent possesses other instruments Theme The principal participant that does not induce an event and is not influenced by it In the case of temporal relations there are usually two themes, instead of one Experiencer The principal participant (always animate) that does not explicitly fulfil an action; instead, it undergoes a certain state (or an event) As an Experiencer is influenced by a state (or an event), it may be confused with a Patient or even with an Agent (when an action coincides with experience) Beneficiary The secondary participant (always animate) that make gains from a certain event A Beneficiary should not be confused with a Patient that is the principal participant Recipient The objective (always animate) of an event that is connected with a transfer A recipient may perform a role of an Agent in such a sentence as â€Å"Father took a strange envelop from Jack† As is shown in Table 2, there are no definite borders among semantic roles; actually, every role may perform different functions in a sentence (Parsons, 1990), and the lack of an integrated structure complicates the analysis. The occurred intricacies can be explained by the fact that any semantic category is based on concepts of subjectivity rather than concepts of objectivity (Knott Sanders, 1998). For example, the word bookcase consists of certain letters and sounds, so it can not be attributed merely to an object. As words and meanings are acquired from a particular social, cultural and linguistic realm (Peregrin, 2003), the relations among all parts of speech are casual, but not natural. Therefore, semantic categories differ not only among members of various societies, but also among people of the same society. For instance, in two utterances Julia prepared bath for Jill and Julia prepared Jill a bath there are certain semantic roles that may be interpreted either as similar or as different. In the first utterance Julia is an Agent and Jill is a Recipient, while in the second utterance

International Development in Developing Countries Essay -- Developing

International Development in Developing Countries â€Å"†¦increasing international trade and financial flows since the Second World War have fostered sustained economic growth over the long term in the world’s high-income states. Some with idle incomes have prospered as well, but low-income economies generally have not made significant gains. The growing world economy has not produced balanced, healthy economic growth in the poorer states. Instead, the cycle of underdevelopment more aptly describes their plight. In the context of weak economies, the negative effects of international trade and foreign investments have been devastating. Issues of trade and currency values preoccupy the economic policies of states with low-income economies even more than those with high incomes because the downturns are far more debilitating.1† The topic that I have selected for my chapter evaluation essay is that of â€Å"Economic Development†. This paragraph above is the best summary of the chapter’s contents. In this chapter the author discusses the influence of development on the three worlds of countries. These worlds are benchmarks set to assess countries economic states relative to each other. When looking through the topic of development, two drastically different ways to assess it arise. The majority of the western world looks at development in terms of per capita GNP. This means each country is evaluated on a level playing field, comparing the production of each country in economic value. Opposite this style of evaluation is that of the alternative view, which measures a country’s development on its ability to fulfill basic material and non-material needs. Cultural ties are strong in this case as most of the population does not produce for wealth but merely survival and tradition. Throughout the chapter the text exerts more emphasis on the economical evaluation of a country's development rather than the alternative method. It begins to branch off quickly into the classification of countries deriving new topics all relating back to the economical approach. Beginning this discussion is the topic of underdevelopment. Many factors can lead to the underdevelopment of a country. The most common sign of underdevelopment is that of a â€Å"Dual Economy†, this takes place when a â€Å"small modern elite and middle class make up about 20-30% of a country’... ...an overabundance of information all applicable to the topic. My feeling was that such an overwhelming load of facts and systems directed me away from the most important facts of the chapter. Its imperative that the student understands the small scale relationship to economic development. Therefore my attempt was to highlight the main topics of the chapter and relate them to the reader to provoke intrest and thought towards many of these important life changing situations that occur everyday. If one can see past all the theories primarily and see the cause and effects behind them, they’re appreciation for the ideas stated in the theories. Bibliography: 1. Global perspectives/ Kelleher, Ann./ Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall, c1999. 2. The Globalization Of World Politics/Baylis,John & Smith, Steve/Oxford University Press Inc., New York, c2001. 3. Poverty And Development/Allen, Tim & Thomas, Alan/ Oxford University Press, Milton Keynes, U.K., c2000. 4. Globalization And International Relations Theory/Clark, Ian/Oxford University Press Inc., New York, c1999. 5. Civilizing World Politics/Albert,Mathias/Rowman & Littlefield Inc. Lanham, Maryland, c2000.